Exploiting the Earth: U.S. Policy Towards Rare Earth Elements
By: Matthew Warren
Recently, the American news cycle has been focused on rare earth elements, or “rare earths.” From President Trump’s remarks about acquiring Greenland, to a possible transfer of Ukraine’s mineral rights to the U.S., to China’s reaction to increased tariffs, rare earths remain central to the geopolitical conversation. But what are these elements? Why are they in such demand? And how does this affect mining and the environment?
What are Rare Earths?
Rare earth elements are the collective name for a group of 17 metallic elements.[1] These elements are used in small quantities to power various pieces of technology. On the consumer side, they’re used in cell phones, hard drives, cars, and TVs.[2] For military purposes, they’re used for radar, sonar, guidance systems, and lasers.[3] Rare earths are also important in the green energy sector, with heavy use in electric vehicle batteries and wind turbines.[4]
Where are Rare Earths Found?
China currently accounts for approximately 90% of global rare earth element production.[5] In 2022, it exported almost nine times more rare earths than Thailand, the next largest exporter.[6] Because of China’s dominance over the global supply of rare earths and other countries’ reliance on international trade, the United States’ imposition of vast tariffs on China has drastic consequences for American access to these minerals.[7] For example, in response to the latest tariff hikes, China has enacted strict export controls on its rare earths, limiting the quantity that it will sell abroad.[8] One such limitation is that Chinese firms need to acquire a special export license before selling rare earths abroad.[9] This means that countries around the world, particularly the U.S., will have to find alternative means to get these minerals. One potential solution that has captured headlines is a U.S. acquisition of Greenland. It is estimated that the island’s southern region surrounding the town Narsaq holds a quarter of the world’s rare earths.[10] Because four-fifths of the island is covered in ice though, the majority of the island’s resources have not been exploited.[11] But in the long-term, as climate change progresses and melts the arctic ice, many of these mineral deposits will be exposed and open for mining.[12]
Rare earths are also found in Ukraine. As of 2022, 5% of the global supply of rare earths comes from Ukraine.[13] The U.S. and Ukraine had previously been attempting to negotiate a deal that would allow the U.S. to access its mineral reserves.[14] As of yet it is unclear whether the two countries can agree to a deal on these minerals.[15]
How does this affect the environment?
As a result of increasing demand for these minerals, coupled with the decrease in international trade with China, Trump issued an executive order to vastly expand America’s mining industry.[16] This includes speeding up the permitting process for new construction and increasing funding for mining operations.[17] Mining can lead to heavy deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and pollution of the surrounding lands.[18] To combat this, the U.S. EPA is collaborating with the U.S. Department of Energy and other private entities to create a regulatory scheme which would encourage and facilitate recycling rare earths from spent equipment.[19] However, until this scheme is adopted, mining rare earths will still have detrimental effects on water quality, soil quality, waste generation, and energy use.[20] This movement towards rare earth independence does not come without a price. As America relies less on international trade to acquire the goods it needs, its natural environment will suffer as a result.
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[1] What are rare earth elements, and why are they important?, Am. Geosciences Inst. (last visited Apr. 12, 2025), https://profession.americangeosciences.org/society/intersections/faq/what-are-rare-earth-elements-and-why-are-they-important/.
[2] Id.
[3] Id.
[4] Renée Cho, The Energy Transition Will Need More Rare Earth Elements. Can We Secure Them Sustainably?, Colum. Climate Sch. (Apr. 5, 2023), https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2023/04/05/the-energy-transition-will-need-more-rare-earth-elements-can-we-secure-them-sustainably/.
[5] Lewis Jackson et al., China hits back at US tariffs with export controls on key rare earths, Reuters (Apr. 4, 2025), https://www.reuters.com/world/china-hits-back-us-tariffs-with-rare-earth-export-controls-2025-04-04/.
[6]Rare-earth metals, scandium and yttrium exports by country in 2022, World Integrated Trade Solution (last visited Apr. 12, 2025),https://wits.worldbank.org/trade/comtrade/en/country/ALL/year/2022/tradeflow/Exports/partner/WLD/product/280530.
[7] See, e.g., Peter Beaumont, China trade war poses threat to US arms firms’ rare earths supply, analysts warn, The Guardian (Apr. 16, 2025), https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/apr/16/china-trade-war-us-arms-firms-rare-earths-supply.
[8] Jackson et al., supra note 5.
[9] Ayesha Perera, Why China curbing rare earth exports is a blow to the US, BBC (Apr. 16, 2025) https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1drqeev36qo.
[10] Jackie Northam, Greenland is Not For Sale. But It Has Rare Earth Minerals America Wants, NPR (Nov. 24, 2019), https://www.npr.org/2019/11/24/781598549/greenland-is-not-for-sale-but-it-has-the-rare-earth-minerals-america-wants.
[11] An American purchase of Greenland could be the deal of the century, The Economist (Jan. 8, 2025), https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2025/01/08/an-american-purchase-of-greenland-could-be-the-deal-of-the-century.
[12] Id.
[13] Hanna Duggal and Marium Ali, Mapping Ukraine’s rare earth and critical minerals, Al Jazeera (Feb. 28, 2025), https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/2/28/mapping-ukraines-rare-earth-and-critical-minerals.
[14] Sonam Sheth, US-Ukraine Minerals Deal in Peril as Talks Grow ‘Antagonistic,’ Newsweek (Apr. 11, 2025), https://www.newsweek.com/us-ukraine-minerals-deal-talks-antagonistic-2058909.
[15] Id.
[16] Donald Trump digs deep to revive American mining, The Economist (Apr. 1, 2025), https://www.economist.com/business/2025/04/01/donald-trump-digs-deep-to-revive-american-mining.
[17] Id.
[18] Sammy Witchalls, The Environmental Problems Caused by Mining, Earth.Org (Apr. 3, 2022), https://earth.org/environmental-problems-caused-by-mining/.
[19] Using Standards to Promote the Reuse of Rare Earth Materials, U.S. Env’t Prot. Agency (Mar. 28, 2025), https://www.epa.gov/vcs/using-standards-promote-reuse-rare-earth-materials.
[20] Id.
