A History of Patents Created by Women of Color - Chicago-Kent

Written by Cassidy Aranda

Introduction

This article focuses on the incredible inventions made by women of color. Everyone involved in the Intellectual Property (IP) field has a responsibility to understand how intersectional issues affect everyone. It is important to include voices from all genders, races, socioeconomic classes, and sexual identities to become a more inclusive industry. Encouraging an intersectional and inclusive mindset for today’s IP patent agents, lawyers, and paralegals will strengthen and empower the next generation of IP leaders. This article is divided into six sections to highlight women inventors who identify as Black, Asian and Pacific Islander, Middle Eastern, Hispanic/Latinx, Indigenous, and South Asian. Each patent tells the story of a woman who contributed to humanity and prevailed in the IP world. The goal is to share these stories to inspire the next generation of women and girls to innovate. If these incredible women of color can get a patent, the next generation can too.

In 2020, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) released an article focusing on the “[W]omen [I]nventor [R]ate (WIR).” [1] The WIR represents the percentage of women classified as inventor-patentees. [2] From 1976 to 2016, the women inventor rate increased from 3% to 12%. [3] The USPTO recently took an intersectional approach to resolve the low WIR by launching the Patent Pro Bono Program (PPBP). [4] Intersectionality, coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, is “the complex, cumulative way in which the effects of multiple forms of discrimination (such as racism, sexism, and classism) combine, overlap, or intersect especially in the experiences of marginalized individuals or groups.” [5] The cost of a patent from the filing date to the expiration date is anywhere from $12,000 to $60,000. [6] To help mitigate high patent costs, the PPBP waives attorney fees. [7] A Harvard study found that “socioeconomic class, race, and gender are highly predictive of [children’s] propensity to become inventors.” [8] Children who are encouraged to create and invent, are more likely to become inventors in adulthood. [9] Furthermore, engineering students with engineers in their families have increased access to patent knowledge and funding compared to first-generation engineering students. [10] After a year of implementation, research found that 41% of USPTO’s PPBP applicants identified as women, 30% identified as Black, and 14% identified as Hispanic. [11] By recognizing and resolving the many intersectional reasons for the low WIR, society can reach gender parity at a faster rate as seen by the early PPBP data.

I. Patent Inventions: Black Women

A. Marian Croak

In 2021, Marian Croak became one of the first two black women to be inducted into The National Inventors Hall of Fame [12] Croak is the Vice President of Engineering at Google and leads its Research Center for Responsible AI and Human Centered Technology. [13] So far, Croak has been named an inventor on over 200 patents. [14] Early in her career, Croak created the idea of “Voice Over Internet Protocols (VoIP).” [15] This technology transforms a person’s voice into a digital signal and enables them to make a call from a computer or any digital device. [16] When she originally discussed her research with her employer at the time, Bell Labs, no one except one executive board member believed in her concept. [17] The executive told Croak to “keep going and do not listen to them.” [18] Croak took the executive’s advice, kept developing VoIP and the “feeling of being small left, and [Croak] suddenly grew by about ten feet.” [19] Croak realized that her power lies in her voice to bring change to humanity. [20] She created the text-to-donate system used by Hurricane Katrina and Haiti earthquake relief programs to raise over $43 million dollars. [21] She continues to mentor the next generation of women engineers and works on racial justice efforts at Google. [22]

B. Mary Beatrice Davidson Kenner

Mary Kenner was born into a family of inventors and created her first invention at age six. [23] At age 12, Kenner walked around the USPTO to garner inspiration and see if any of her ideas had been filed yet. [24] Kenner was a pioneer in the menstrual product industry. [25] In the 1920s, Kenner created the first sanitary belt—the precursor to beltless pads. [26] Due to financial reasons, Kenner was unable to obtain a sanitary belt patent until 1957. [27] After Kenner received her sanitary belt patent, she found a company interested in selling her product. [28] Unfortunately, the company revoked the offer when they discovered Kenner was black. [29] A Harvard study found that it would take “118 years to reach gender parity” of inventors at the current rate. [30] If programs like the Patent Pro Bono Program had been available earlier, it could have helped to decrease the current gender disparity between inventors. Kenner is just one example of an inventor with brilliant ideas that needs financial assistance to make their dreams become reality. The intersectional barriers of white supremacy and socioeconomic status were roadblocks in Kenner’s journey. By decreasing the barriers women face while getting a patent, the women inventor rate can trend upwards faster and shatter the initial 118-year timeline. At the time, Kenner held the most patents of any African American woman. [31]

II. Patent Inventions: Asian and Pacific Islander Women

A. Flossie Wong-Staal

Dr. Flossie Wong-Staal, a first-generation Chinese American student, received her Ph.D. in molecular biology. [32] Her patented research held the key to finding the link between HIV and AIDS. [33] Dr. Wong-Staal, “a stylish, elegant and confident woman,” authored hundreds of papers on AIDS and retroviruses. [34] Dr. Wong-Staal invented forty-six patents throughout her lifetime. [35] These ranged from “[a]ntibodies against human herpes virus-6” to “[v]iral vectors.” [36] Dr. Wong-Staal’s passion for virus research emanated from statements like “[w]orking with this virus is like putting your hands in a treasure chest[,] every time you put your hand in, you pull out a gem.” [37] Even today, her HIV virus research plays a key role in assisting COVID-19 vaccine development. [38] The NIH scientist’s legacy forever lives on as a member of the National Women’s Hall of Fame. [39]

B. Evelyn B. Taboada

Dr. Evelyn B. Taboada is the Dean of the College of Engineering and a chemical engineering professor at the University of San Carlos located in Cebu City. [40] Dr. Taboada holds patents for her invention that reduces fruit waste. [41] For example, dried mango processes yield 250 thousand tons of fruit waste per year. [42] Dr. Taboada invented a process to reuse this fruit waste by “pulveriz[ing] mango kernels into mango flour, which can further be used in soaps, scrubs, and beverage mixes.” [43] Dr. Taboada is a leader in sustainable production and consumption at the University of San Carlos. [44] Dr. Taboada received the “WIPO Gold Medal for Inventors for her technological innovations and outstanding achievement in utilizing IP for social and economic development.” [45] The Philippines has the second-highest number of female inventors filing for patents in the world. [46] In response, the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines created the Juana Patent and Juana Design Protection program in 2022. [47] This program focuses on increasing women’s inventorship by waiving fees, prioritizing women inventors, and fast-tracking qualified applications. [48]

III. Patent Inventions: Middle Eastern Women

A. Rana el Kaliouby

Dr. Rana el Kaliouby is the CEO of Affectiva and Smart Eye, a merged AI company with “a mission to bring emotions back into digital experiences.” [49] The Egyptian American computer scientist received a Ph.D. in Computer Science from the University of Cambridge and a Postdoc in Computer Science from MIT. [50] Dr. El Kaliouby’s software company uses “deep learning, computer vision, speech science and data” to become a “global AI powerhouse.” [51] Dr. El Kaliouby has filed 137 patents on topics ranging from the “mental state analysis of individuals based on their eye-blink rate” to the “image analysis using a semiconductor processor for facial evaluation.” [52] Using her patents, Dr. El Kaliouby created an app that senses how one feels based on facial emotions. [53] Dr. El Kaliouby’s work increases technology’s emotional intelligence and allows smart devices to “react accordingly just the way an emotionally intelligent friend would.” [54] Dr. El Kaliouby’s titled memoir, Girl Decoded: A Scientist Quest to Reclaim Our Humanity by Bringing Emotional Intelligence to Technology, discusses her incredible story about business development, technical growth, and personal evolution. [55]

B. Reem Al Marzouqi

Reem Al Marzouqi is the first person from the United Arab Emirates to receive a U.S. patent. [56] While she was a student at the United Arab Emirates University, Al Marzouqi developed the first car driven only by “feet-controlled levers.” [57] The invention assists those unable to use their upper body. [58] The inspiration for Al Marzouqi’s project came from Jessica Cox, the world’s first licensed armless pilot. [59] Cox found it difficult to drive a car with only her feet, and Al Marzouqi wanted to create a viable solution. [60] After perfecting the hands-free car over five years, Al Marzouqi filed her patent. [61] After Al Marzouqi successfully obtained the patent in the U.S., she filed for feet-controlled lever patents in Japan, China, and Europe. [62] She currently works as an engineer at the Abu Dhabi Airport and uses her voice to inspire more women to join engineering. [63] Her latest inventions include “Mozo, a teddy bear aimed to help autistic children with their communication skills,” and a “duplicate detection systems for the Abu Dhabi Airport Company that can avoid damage to cargoes.” [64]

IV. Patent Inventions: Hispanic/Latinx Women

A. Ellen Ochoa

Dr. Ellen Ochoa is the first Hispanic director of the Johnson Space Center and the first Hispanic woman to go to space. [65] After receiving a doctorate in electrical engineering from Stanford University, she became a research engineer at NASA and invented three patents on optical systems. [66] As an astronaut, she spent around one thousand hours in space and is an inductee to the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame. [67] Dr. Ochoa showcased her many talents including playing her flute throughout her first mission in space. [68] No stranger to resiliency, Dr. Ochoa had applied to the NASA Training program three times before she was accepted to go to space. [69] Her story reminds all to never give up on one’s dreams. She recently wrote a children’s book titled We Are All Scientists to demonstrate to children their curiosity is the same curiosity scientists use to answer the world’s biggest questions. [70]

B. Lydia Villa-Komaroff

Dr. Lydia Villa-Komaroff is the third Mexican American woman in the U.S. to receive a Ph.D. in the science field. [71] Dr. Villa-Komaroff is now a Professor of Neurology at Northwestern University and Harvard Medical School. [72] She also runs the first human brain transplant committee at Northwestern. [73] Dr. Villa-Komaroff published over sixty articles about Insulin Genes throughout her career. [74] Through this research, she discovered that “bacteria could be used to generate insulin, a critical medication for the treatment of diabetes.” [75] She received two patents for her work in “Recombinant DNA Molecules” and “Protein Synthesis.” [76] Dr. Villa-Komaroff is committed to enabling the next generation of minorities to succeed in the science field. [77] She co-founded the Society for the Advancement of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in Science (SACNAS). [78] SACNAS is dedicated to Hispanic/Chicano and Native American students’ success as they develop from college students to science professionals. [79] She received the SACNAS 2021 Presidential Service Award for her dedication to this cause. [80]

V. Patent Inventions: Indigenous Women

A. Tara Astigarraga

Tara Astigarraga is a member of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma and a first-generation engineer. [81] She achieved one of the highest IBM honors—IBM Master Inventor. [82] Astigarraga is a named inventor on 65 patents. [83] She works on everything from blockchain architecture, systems, chain code, networking, and resolving issues in the hybrid cloud. [84] To Astigarraga, being an IBM Master Inventor not only means she is a top inventor, but more importantly, she is responsible for mentoring others and giving back to the community. [85] Astigarraga mentors science and engineering students through the American Indian Sciences and Engineering Society. [86] Astigarraga collaborates on technical projects with those students and informs them of future career opportunities. [87] Every day, she lives by her aunt’s quote, “if you light a lamp for someone, it will brighten your own path.” [88]

B. Nedlaya Francisco

Nedlaya Francisco, a Navajo woman, graduated from the University of Arizona with a computer engineering degree. [89] Francisco’s career began in IBM storage testing where her technical mentor was a fellow Navajo woman. [90] Francisco continues to thrive in the diverse IBM female coder and tester space. [91] Francisco is a named inventor on 37 patents. [92] Francisco’s work on the IBM System Storage DS8000 is used by “25% of the Top Fortune 100 companies and [the device] protects their most important data.” [93] Even with all that success, Francisco holds the story of her first patent closest to her heart. [94] Together, she and three colleagues achieved the IBM 2008 Women Inventors Community Patent Challenge award. [95] This moment inspired future collaboration and patents. [96] Francisco never had the chance to learn science through hands-on activities on the reservation when she was growing up. [97] This inspired her to lead Lego robotics, snap circuits, and programming classes during STEM days at the Tohono O’odham Reservation and the Pascua Yaqui tribe. [98]

VI. Patented Inventions: South Asian Women

A. Vani Vully

After Vani Vully received her computer science degree from the University of Pittsburgh, she went on to become a senior engineer at NetApp. [99] Vully is a named inventor on eleven patents. [100] The patent topics ranged from “transitioning volume between storage virtual machines” to creating a “system and method for addressing data containers using data set identifiers.” [101] One of her favorite patents is a “system that allows seamless access to volume stored in a cluster.” [102] Vully’s discovery is used by hospitals to digitize patient records. [103] The technology enables doctors to quickly obtain the patient’s health history (x-rays, MRIs, ultrasounds) when needed. [104]

B. Shalini Kapoor

Shalini Kapoor is a Distinguished Engineer, the Director of Watson Internet of Things (IoT) India, and the first Indian woman to be an IBM Fellow. [105] An IBM Fellow is the highest recognition IBM employees are eligible to receive within the company. [106] Kapoor is “passionate about transformations that shape people’s lives.” [107] Kapoor received twelve patents while working in artificial intelligence, software, global systems integration, and IoT. [108] At IBM, Kapoor strengthens her skills by taking on leadership roles in technical sales, research, and development. [109] Kapoor advocates for the further development of “cross-functional skill[sets]” to strengthen future AI and machine learning growth. [110] To achieve her mission, Kapoor runs the Ankurit Foundation to inspire the next generation of AI leaders. [111] The Ankurit Foundation hosts “Escape Velocity, a first-of-its-kind, corporate-funded STEM fair for more than 3,000 school children.” [112] Kapoor also assists the Indian government in creating AI core curriculum for millions of students. [113] Kapoor states, “Transformation begins within, but it is not limited to you. To affect positive change, you have to scale and reach across traditional borders to engage people so you can help shape their lives for the better.” [114]

Conclusion

The intellectual property field can only benefit from discussions about intersectionality and gender parity. Shedding light on these inventors’ stories is crucial because it will inspire the next generation of women of color to pursue inventorship. These stories demonstrate that obtaining a patent is an attainable goal for a woman of color.

References

[1] USPTO, PROGRESS AND POTENTIAL: 2020 UPDATE ON U.S. WOMEN INVENTOR-PATENTEES (July 2020), at 3, https://www.uspto.gov/sites/default/files/documents/OCE-DH-Progress-Potential-2020.pdf [https://perma.cc/7QAM-JB7N].

[2] Id.

[3] USPTO, REPORT TO CONG. PURSUANT TO P.L. 115-273, THE SUCCESS ACT (Oct. 2019), at 8 https://www.uspto.gov/sites/default/files/documents/USPTOSuccessAct.pdf [https://perma.cc/Y5ME-ATKK].

[4] Drew Hirshfeld, The USPTO’s Pat. Pro Bono Program: Promoting Equity in Innovation Since 2011, DIRECTOR’S BLOG: THE LATEST FROM USPTO LEADERSHIP (Mar. 23, 2022), https://www.uspto.gov/blog/director/entry/the-uspto-s-patent-pro?utm_campaign=subscriptioncenter&utm_content=&utm_medium=email&utm_name=&utm_source=govdelivery&utm_term= [https://perma.cc/J8PW-V7ES].

[5] Leah Thomas, The Intersectional Environmentalist 26 (2022).

[6] Russ Krajec, How Much Do Patent Attorneys Charge, BLUEIRON (2020), https://blueironip.com/how-much-do-patent-attorneys-charge/ [https://perma.cc/N2Z7-BDGF].

[7] Hirshfeld, supra n.4.

[8] Alex Bell, et al., Who Becomes an Inventor in America? The Importance of Exposure to Innovation, 134 The Q. J. of Econ., 647, 647, (2018), https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/134/2/647/5218522?login=true [https://perma.cc/3PRQ-4QHU].

[9] Id. at 649.

[10] Id.

[11] Hirshfeld, supra n.4.

[12] Rachel Treisman, Meet the First 2 Black Women to Be Inducted into the Nat’l Inventors Hall Of Fame, NPR (Sept. 27, 2021, 8:40 AM), https://www.npr.org/2021/09/27/1040795026/patricia-bath-marian-croak-national-inventors-hall-of-fame-first-black-women [https://perma.cc/D6VR-ZM4S].

[13] Id.

[14]Id.

[15] Id.

[16] Id.

[17] Nat’l Inventors Hall of Fame, Change for the Greater Good: The Marian Croak Story, YOUTUBE (Feb. 24, 2022), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4Y898xDiwE [https://perma.cc/P9AH-PQ7Z].

[18] Id.

[19] Id.

[20] Id.

[21] Marian Croak, NAT’L INVENTORS HALL OF FAME (2022), https://www.invent.org/inductees/marian-croak [https://perma.cc/6K5E-SJRU].

[22] Id.

[23] Alex Rye, Mary Kenner, BLACKPAST (Sept. 27, 2020), https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/mary-kenner-1912-2006/ [https://perma.cc/7AYH-J3VE].

[24] Women’s History Month Profiles: Mary Beatrice Davidson Kenner, Inventor, DIVERSITYINC (Feb. 3, 2021), https://www.diversityinc.com/womens-history-month-profiles-mary-beatrice-davidson-kenner-inventor-2/ [https://perma.cc/4A27-ES5X].

[25] Rye, supra n.23.

[26] Id.

[27] Id.

[28] Id.

[29] Id.

[30] Bell, supra n.8, at 648.

[31] Rye, supra n. 23.

[32] Genoveffa Franchini, Flossie Wong-Staal (1946–2020): Trailblazing HIV Researcher, 369 SCI. 1308, 1308 (Sept. 11, 2020), https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.abe4095 [https://perma.cc/S76D-VZ52].

[33] Id.

[34] Id.

[35] Patents by Inventor Flossie Wong-Staal, JUSTIA, https://patents.justia.com/inventor/flossie-wong-staal?page=3 [https://perma.cc/5FZB-VWM9].

[36] Id.

[37] Faye Flam, Flossie Wong-Staal, Who Unlocked Mystery of H.I.V., Dies at 73, N.Y. TIMES, July 17, 2020.

[38] Id.

[39] Flossie Wong-Staal, NAT’L WOMEN’S HALL OF FAME, https://www.womenofthehall.org/inductee/flossie-wongstaal/ [https://perma.cc/WP6F-UE45].

[40] Evelyn Taboada, NAT’L MULTIPLICATION TRAININGS, https://www.dies-nmt.org/nmt/trainer/19.html [https://perma.cc/5QRE-XE8K].

[41] Reina Regina, 8 Filipino Women Slaying it in Science, 8LIST.PH (May 13, 2019), https://www.8list.ph/8-filipino-women-slaying-it-in-science/#read-more [https://perma.cc/5U79-74YF].

[42] Id.

[43] Id.

[44] Evelyn Taboada, supra n.40.

[45] Id.

[46] Katharina Buchholz, These Countries Have the Most Female Inventors, WORLD ECON. F. (Feb. 17, 2022), https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/02/world-data-female-inventors-women#:~:text=Data%20from%20the%20World%20Intellectual,The%20global%20average%20was%2017%25 [https://perma.cc/CEG9-M2TM].

[47] Juana Patent and Juana Design Protection Incentive Program, INTELL. PROP. OFF. of the PHIL., https://www.ipophil.gov.ph/juana-patent-and-juana-design-protection-incentive-program/ [https://perma.cc/2LM7-FW63].

[48] Id.

[49] Rana el Kaliouby, This App Knows How You Feel—from the Look on Your Face, TED (2015), https://www.ted.com/talks/rana_el_kaliouby_this_app_knows_how_you_feel_from_the_look_on_your_face/transcript?language=en [https://perma.cc/W9SB-TKC6].

[50] About Rana el Kaliouby, RANA EL KALIOUBY, https://ranaelkaliouby.com/about/ [https://perma.cc/PV42-PZ3S].

[51] Id.

[52] Patents by Inventor Rana el Kaliouby, JUSTIA, https://patents.justia.com/inventor/rana-el-kaliouby?page=6 [https://perma.cc/89AF-WWSX].

[53] El Kaliouby, n.49.

[54] Id.

[55] About Rana el Kaliouby, supra n.50.

[56] Reem Al Marzouqi, KHALEEJ TIMES, https://womenofsubstance.khaleejtimes.com/reem-al-marzouqi/ [https://perma.cc/D73U-VGXF].

[57] Id.

[58] Id.

[59] Meet UAE’S Very Own Engineer & Driverless Car Designer, Reem Al Marzouqi, ABOUT HER, https://www.abouther.com/node/39216/people/leading-ladies/meet-uaes-very-own-engineer-driverless-car-designer-reem-al [https://perma.cc/27GT-ZST8].

[60] Id.

[61] Reem Al Marzouqi, ARABIAN BUS., https://www.arabianbusiness.com/lists/379383-100-smartest-people-in-the-uae-15reem-al-marzouqi [https://perma.cc/9KZU-TETU].

[62] Id.

[63] Reem Al Marzouqi, supra n.61.

[64] Meet UAE’S Very Own Engineer & Driverless Car Designer, Reem Al Marzouqi, supra n. 59.

[65] NASA Astronaut Dr. Ellen Ochoa, NASA (May 7, 2021), https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/about/people/orgs/bios/ochoa.html [https://perma.cc/V37T-XMB2].

[66] Id.

[67] Today, Trailblazing Astronaut Dr. Ellen Ochoa Talks Joining Arts and Science, YOUTUBE (Sep. 14, 2022), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bX-exsr3sHM [https://perma.cc/3T89-2X8J].

[68] Id.

[69] Id.

[70] Id.

[71] Hispanic Heritage and Inventions, USPTO, https://www.uspto.gov/learning-and-resources/inventors-entrepreneurs/hispanic-heritage-and-inventions [https://perma.cc/YR65-QWS4].

[72] Leonard Rodriguez, Dr. Lydia Villa Komaroff, LA PRENSA TEXAS (May 17, 2019), https://laprensatexas.com/dr-lydia-villa-komaroff/ [https://perma.cc/N5KB-Y3Z9].

[73] Id.

[74] Id.

[75] Kate Rose, SACNAS Honors Dr. Lydia Villa-Komaroff with 2021 Presidential Service Award, SACNAS (Oct. 27, 2021), https://www.sacnas.org/diversity-news/sacnas-honors-dr-lydia-villa-komaroff-with-2021-presidential-service-award [https://perma.cc/7G6P-5KYY].

[76] Patents by Inventor Lydia J. Villa-Komaroff, JUSTIA, https://patents.justia.com/inventor/lydia-j-villa-komaroff [https://perma.cc/XFR6-3U2N].

[77] Rodriguez, supra n.72.

[78] Id.

[79] Rose, supra n.75.

[80] Id.

[81] Q and A with Tara Astigarraga, IBM Master Inventor Is Recipient of AISES Technical Excellence Award, IBM (Nov. 21, 2016), https://www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2016/11/qa-tara-astigarraga-ibm-master-inventor-recipient-aises-technical-excellence-award/ [https://perma.cc/K6UT-5K33].

[82] Id.

[83] Patents by Inventor Tara Astigarraga, JUSTIA, https://www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2016/11/qa-tara-astigarraga-ibm-master-inventor-recipient-aises-technical-excellence-award/ [https://perma.cc/P8CW-H2H7].

[84] Q and A with Tara Astigarraga, IBM Master Inventor Is Recipient of AISES Technical Excellence Award, supra n.81.

[85] IBM Research Blog, Be Essential: Tara Astigarraga, YOUTUBE (Nov. 21, 2016), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxvOG25e5Xw [https://perma.cc/73HU-RZ7K].

[86] Id.

[87] Id.

[88] Id.

[89] Cynthia Cunniff, IBM Engineer Nedlaya Francisco loves solving new problems, IBM (Nov. 14, 2019), https://www.ibm.com/blogs/industries/big-thinker-nedlaya-francisco/ [https://perma.cc/9766-VVRY].

[90] Id.

[91] Id.

[92] Id.

[93] Id.

[94] Id.

[95] Id.

[96] Id.

[97] Id.

[98] Id.

[99] Vishal Krishna, Women on Top: How These Women Showed India the Way in Filing Patents in Global Technology, YOURSTORY (Mar. 8, 2016), https://yourstory.com/2016/03/women-patents-india [https://perma.cc/Q8YN-CGYR].

[100] Patents by Inventor Vani Vully, JUSTIA, https://patents.justia.com/inventor/vani-vully [https://perma.cc/LC4K-W84X].

[101] Id.

[102] Krishna, supra n.99.

[103] Id.

[104] Id.

[105] IBM’s Kapoor is First Indian Woman, TIMES OF INDIA (Apr. 11, 2020), https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/ibms-kapoor-is-first-indian-woman-fellow/articleshow/75089122.cms [https://perma.cc/BT9E-ELVE].

[106] Id.

[107] 2020 IBM Fellows, Meet IBM’s Best and Brightest: Shalini Kapoor, IBM (2020), https://newsroom.ibm.com/shalini-kapoor [https://perma.cc/7P57-2THL].

[108] Id.

[109] Id.

[110] Id.

[111] Id.